What is a laboratory examination?

(ALP)

An enzyme that aids in the breakdown of proteins and cellular metabolic processes. It is found in every tissue, but most prominently in the intestines, liver, bones, and kidneys. In pregnant women, it is also present in the placenta. ALP primarily provides information about the proper functioning of the liver and skeletal system. It provides a more accurate diagnosis when assessed together with other laboratory tests (such as comprehensive liver function or bone metabolism tests). If simultaneously conducted liver tests, such as bilirubin, AST, or ALT, also show elevated values, then the elevated ALP is derived from the liver. If phosphate and calcium levels are abnormal, then the elevated ALP is of bone origin.

Normal range: 40 – 115 U/L

An elevated value may indicate:

• Liver tumor
• Alcoholic liver disease
• Hepatitis (liver inflammation)
• Osteoporosis (bone loss)
• Gallstones or bile duct obstruction
• Pregnancy

A decreased value may indicate:

• Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid)
• Anemia
• Deficiency of certain vitamins and minerals: folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin B6, phosphate, zinc

Albumin is a transport protein produced in the liver. Testing albumin levels provides information about liver and kidney function, as well as nutritional status.

Normal range: 35-52 g/L

An elevated value may indicate:

• Dehydration

A decreased value may indicate:

• Liver disease
• Malnutrition, protein malabsorption disorders
• Kidney disease
• Shock state

(Antithyroid Peroxidase Antibodies)

One of the antibodies produced by the body. In cases where the immune system starts producing autoantibodies against the thyroid peroxidase (TPO) enzyme, the structure and function of the thyroid gland can be affected.

TPO is an enzyme that plays an important role in the production of thyroid hormones.

Anti-TPO antibodies are most commonly found in cases of hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid).

(C-reactive protein)

CRP is produced by the liver cells in response to inflammation. It serves as a useful marker for assessing inflammatory processes in the body.

Normal range:

• Women: less than 4.6 mg/L
• Men: less than 5.2 mg/L

A higher value may indicate:

• Bacterial infection
• Fungal infection
• Tumor or cancer

Phosphate plays an important role in cellular metabolism and is present in large quantities in our bones. It is eliminated by the kidneys and a significant portion is reabsorbed. In cases of chronic kidney failure, high phosphate levels can lead to disturbances in bone metabolism.

Normal range: 0.80 – 1.45 mmol/L

An elevated value may indicate:

• Dehydration
• Hypovolemia (low blood volume)
• Hypoparathyroidism (underactive parathyroid glands)
• Chronic kidney failure
• Excessive intake of vitamin D
• Liver disease

A decreased value may indicate:

• Hyperparathyroidism (overactive parathyroid glands)
• Vitamin D deficiency
• Ethanol (alcohol) poisoning
• Sepsis (severe infection)
• Kidney disease, dialysis
• Vomiting, diarrhea
• Use of certain medications

FT3 (Free Triiodothyronine) and FT4 (Free Thyroxine):

These are hormones produced by the thyroid gland, indicating proper thyroid function.

• FT4: 0-22.0 pmol/L
• FT3: 2.4-6.3 pmol/L

An elevated value may indicate:

• Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid)
• Acute or chronic thyroid inflammation
• Surgical removal of the thyroid gland
• Medication treatment

Please note that reference ranges may vary slightly depending on the laboratory or specific assay used. It is important to interpret these values in conjunction with other clinical factors and consult a healthcare professional for a comprehensive evaluation.

Glucose is the primary source of energy for cells, and its levels are influenced by the hormone insulin.

Normal range: 3.7-6.0 mmol/L

Symptoms and consequences of elevated glucose levels:

• Thirst
• Increased urination
• Confusion
• Vision problems
• Loss of consciousness
• Impaired wound healing
• Kidney disease
• Blindness
• Atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)

Symptoms and causes of decreased glucose levels:

• Hunger
• Fatigue
• Dizziness
• Sweating
• Vision problems
• Loss of consciousness
• Insulin overdose
• Liver damage
• Alcoholism
• Starvation
• Cancer

It’s important to note that glucose levels can vary in different individuals, and interpretation should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors. Consulting a healthcare professional is advised for proper evaluation and management.

GOT (Glutamate-Oxaloacetate Transaminase), also known as AST (Aspartate Aminotransferase):

GOT/AST is an enzyme primarily found in the liver and heart, but it can also be present in skeletal muscle, kidneys, and the brain. Its levels are usually evaluated together with GPT (ALT), so it is not typically requested as a separate test.

Normal range: <40 U/L

• Women: 18-31 U/L
• Men: 18-33 U/L

An elevated value may indicate:

• Viral liver infection
• Liver cirrhosis or hepatocellular damage
• Exposure to harmful substances (e.g., solvents)
• Certain medications, such as oral contraceptives or cholesterol-lowering drugs, can also affect the values
• Bile duct obstruction or gallstones
• Malignant liver tumor or metastasis

A decreased value may indicate:

• Pregnancy

It’s important to note that interpretation of GOT/AST levels should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors, and consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

(Glutamate-Pyruvate Transaminase), also known as ALT (Alanine Aminotransferase)

GPT/ALT is an enzyme primarily produced in liver cells and serves as an indicator of liver damage. It is also found in smaller amounts in the kidneys, muscles, and heart. The concentration of GPT/ALT in the blood is normally low, but in cases of liver damage, more of this enzyme is released into the bloodstream, where it can be detected.

Normal range: <40 U/L

• Women: 7-30 U/L
• Men: 10-55 U/L
• Children: 10-35 U/L
• Newborns: 6-50 U/L

An elevated value may indicate:

• Inflammatory liver diseases
• Toxic exposure
• Medication use
• Malignant (cancerous) diseases
• Severe, extensive burns
• Damage or obstruction of the bile ducts
• Pancreatic disorders
• Heart attack

It’s important to note that interpretation of GPT/ALT levels should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors, and consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

(Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase):

GGT is an enzyme that is predominantly found in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. It plays a role in the breakdown of a substance called glutathione.

The activity of this enzyme does not specifically indicate the cause of liver damage, so it is usually measured in conjunction with other liver function tests.

Normal range: 8-50 U/L (international units per liter)

It is primarily used to detect damage to liver cells and to evaluate the possibility of bile duct obstruction.

An elevated value may indicate:

• Bile duct obstruction
• Liver disease
• Liver inflammation
• Pancreatitis (pancreas inflammation)
• Alcoholism
• Medications
• Exposure to chemicals

It’s important to note that interpretation of GGT levels should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors, and consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

Uric acid is a breakdown product of nucleic acids. It is excreted from the body through urine and feces. If it is not adequately eliminated, excess uric acid can accumulate and crystallize in the joint fluid, leading to a condition known as gout.

Normal range: 155-357 umol/L

An elevated value may indicate:

• Excessive protein consumption
• Alcohol consumption
• Certain medications
• Conditions such as diabetes and kidney disease
• Chemotherapy and radiation therapy

It’s important to note that interpretation of uric acid levels should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors, and consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

(High-Density Lipoprotein cholesterol)

HDL cholesterol is a type of lipoprotein that picks up excess cholesterol from the bloodstream and transports it back to the liver, where some of it is eliminated through bile.

HDL cholesterol is often referred to as „good cholesterol” because it helps remove excess cholesterol from the arteries, reducing the risk of plaque formation and cardiovascular diseases. High levels of HDL cholesterol are considered beneficial for overall health.

Urea is a breakdown product of amino acids. It is produced in the liver and eliminated from the body through the kidneys in the form of urine. It is primarily used to assess kidney function.

Normal range: 8-20 mg/dL (3-7 mmol/L)

An elevated level may indicate:

• Decreased kidney filtration capacity, kidney failure, dehydration, urinary tract obstruction
• Increased breakdown of amino acids, high-protein diet
• Gastrointestinal bleeding

A decreased value may indicate:

• Liver disease

It’s important to note that interpretation of urea levels should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors, and consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

Creatinine is a waste product derived from the breakdown of muscle proteins. It is excreted from the body through the kidneys in the form of urine.

The level of creatinine in the blood depends on the kidney’s filtration performance.

Normal range: 49-90 umol/L

An elevated value may indicate:

• Impaired kidney filtration function
• Kidney failure

A decreased value may indicate:

• Abnormal muscle mass loss
• Aging of the body
• Pregnancy

It’s important to note that interpretation of creatinine levels should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors, and consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

Creatine Kinase

This enzyme is responsible for energy production in cells. It is present in the heart muscle, skeletal muscles, and intestines.

In a healthy body, this enzyme does not appear in the bloodstream.

Normal range:

• Men: 17-150 IU/L (international units per liter)
• Women: 10-80 IU/L

A higher value may indicate:

• Muscle injury
• Muscle inflammation
• Heart attack
• Burns

A lower value may indicate:

• Decreased muscle mass (in older age)

It’s important to note that interpretation of CK levels should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors, and consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

Potassium is an electrolyte responsible for regulating fluid balance in the body. It plays a vital role in muscle function, nerve impulse transmission, cellular energy production, and maintaining acid-base balance.

Normal range: 3.5 – 5.3 mmol/L

If the level deviates from the normal range, it can increase the risk of cardiac arrhythmias, respiratory insufficiency, and shock.

The potassium level can be higher than normal due to increased intake of potassium through medication or diet, kidney failure, Addison’s disease, tissue damage, infections, diabetes, or dehydration.

The potassium level can be lower than normal due to dehydration, vomiting, diarrhea, insulin treatment for diabetes.

It’s important to note that interpretation of potassium levels should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors, and consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

Cholesterol is involved in cell membrane structure, hormone synthesis, and bile acid production. It is produced by the liver and can also be obtained through dietary sources. Elevated levels of cholesterol significantly influence the development of heart and coronary artery diseases. During laboratory testing, cholesterol is typically assessed by measuring three components: total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol.

Normal range: <5.2 mmol/L

• HDL cholesterol: <1.71 mmol/L
• LDL cholesterol: >1.17 mmol/L

It’s important to note that the interpretation of cholesterol levels should be done in conjunction with other risk factors and overall health assessment. Consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation, understanding individual risk profiles, and implementing appropriate preventive measures.

Calcium is primarily found in the bones, but it also plays a role in nerve and muscle excitability. It is an essential mineral, and its levels are regulated by the parathyroid hormone and vitamin D, which is activated in the kidneys.

Normal range: 2.20-2.65 mmol/L

A lower value may result in:

• Muscle cramps
• Sensory disturbances
• Muscle pain
• Depression
• Osteoporosis

A higher value may result in:

• Constipation
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Muscle weakness
• Excessive weight loss
• Gastric ulcer
• Abdominal pain
• Increased urine volume
• Kidney stones
• Emotional lability
• Fatigue

It’s important to note that interpretation of calcium levels should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors, and consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

Lactate dehydrogenase

This enzyme plays a role in glucose metabolism and is found throughout the body, but in smaller amounts in the blood.

It is particularly present in the heart, skeletal muscles, liver, kidneys, and red blood cells.

Normal range: 240-480 U/L

An elevated value may indicate:

• Liver or kidney diseases
• Pancreatitis
• Heart muscle diseases
• Skeletal muscle diseases

A low LDH level generally does not cause any issues in the body.

It’s important to note that interpretation of LDH levels should be done in conjunction with other clinical factors, and consulting a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and diagnosis.

Low-Density Lipoprotein

LDL cholesterol is a type of lipoprotein that transports cholesterol from the liver to cells throughout the body. It is often referred to as „bad” cholesterol because high levels of LDL cholesterol are associated with an increased risk of heart disease and atherosclerosis.

LDL cholesterol can contribute to the buildup of plaque in the arteries, leading to narrowed and hardened arteries, which can restrict blood flow and increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes.

It’s important to maintain healthy levels of LDL cholesterol through lifestyle modifications such as a balanced diet, regular exercise, and, if necessary, medication under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Regular monitoring and management of LDL cholesterol levels are crucial for cardiovascular health.

Magnesium plays a role in the structure of bones and teeth, as well as in the proper functioning of blood pressure regulation and the nervous system.

Normal range: 0.75-1.25 mmol/L

Symptoms of an elevated magnesium level may include:

• Drowsiness
• Muscle weakness
• Muscle paralysis
• Low blood pressure
• Respiratory muscle paralysis
• Cardiac arrest

Symptoms of a low magnesium level may include:

• Weakness
• Muscle cramps
• Tremors
• Abnormal eye movements
• Blood pressure fluctuations
• Rapid heartbeat
• Confusion
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Heart rhythm disturbances

A low magnesium level can be caused by malabsorption, increased excretion (kidney disease, vomiting, diarrhea, diabetes, tumors, etc.).

Proper diagnosis and management of magnesium levels are important for overall health. If you suspect any abnormalities, it is recommended to consult with a healthcare professional for evaluation and appropriate treatment.

Sodium participates in the regulation of various processes in the body, such as fluid balance, muscle function, nerve impulse transmission, acid-base balance, and carbohydrate and protein metabolism.

Normal range: 136-146 mmol/L

Sodium plays a crucial role in maintaining proper hydration, nerve function, and muscle contraction. It works in conjunction with other electrolytes, such as potassium, to maintain the body’s fluid balance and facilitate proper cellular function.

Both excessively high and low levels of sodium can have negative effects on the body. High sodium levels (hypernatremia) may be associated with dehydration, certain kidney conditions, or excessive sodium intake. Low sodium levels (hyponatremia) can occur due to conditions such as excessive sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, or certain medical conditions affecting the kidneys or hormonal regulation.

Proper maintenance of sodium levels is essential for overall health. If you suspect any abnormalities, it is recommended to consult with a healthcare professional for evaluation and appropriate treatment.

The breakdown product of hemoglobin, it is formed during the aging and destruction of red blood cells.

Normal range: <20 umol/L, with direct bilirubin accounting for 1-5 umol/L.

In newborns, levels above 340 umol/L are considered high and may indicate elevated bilirubin levels. Bilirubin is transported to the liver bound to proteins and is then excreted into the bile ducts, giving bile its characteristic yellow color.

Total bilirubin levels are commonly evaluated in various diseases, such as liver disease, gallstones or obstruction, pancreatic disorders, hemolysis, and routinely in newborns.

Elevated levels of bilirubin can cause jaundice, which may manifest as yellowing of the eyes or the entire skin.

High bilirubin levels may indicate:

• Hemolysis (excessive breakdown of red blood cells)
• Metabolic disorders
• Medication use
• Hepatitis (liver inflammation)
• Liver failure
• Chemotherapy
• Excessive alcohol consumption
• Fungal poisoning
• Bile duct obstruction or tumor
• Pancreatic tumor
• Gilbert’s syndrome (a benign condition causing mild jaundice)

If your bilirubin levels are elevated, it is important to consult a healthcare professional for further evaluation and appropriate management.

Proteins are the building blocks of cells and tissues, and they play a role in the blood clotting system. The level of total protein in the blood can be affected by inadequate nutrition, liver disease, or kidney disease.

Normal range: 60-80 g/L

Elevated levels may indicate:

• Chronic inflammation
• Dehydration

Decreased levels may indicate:

• Liver disease
• Malnutrition or protein malabsorption disorders
• Kidney disease

If your total protein levels are abnormal, it is important to consult a healthcare professional for further evaluation and to determine the underlying cause.

The ESR measures the rate at which red blood cells settle in a blood sample. An elevated value may indicate the presence of inflammation, cancer, kidney disease, anemia, or infection in the body.

Normal range: less than 20 mm/hour

A decreased value may indicate:

• Bone marrow disorders
• Leukemia
• Congestive heart failure
• Sickle cell anemia
• Decreased protein levels (associated with kidney and liver diseases)

An elevated value may indicate:

• Infectious diseases
• Inflammation
• Autoimmune diseases
• Cancerous conditions
• Multiple myeloma (plasma cell cancer)
• Anemia
• Hyperthyroidism
• Pregnancy
• Chronic kidney failure

ESR is a general indicator, and further tests are necessary to establish an accurate diagnosis. If the ESR value is elevated or decreased, it is important to consult with a doctor or healthcare professional who can perform additional tests and provide interpretation.

One of its main functions is the transport of iron ions to the bone marrow. It provides important information when assessing the body’s iron content.

Normal range: 200-340 g/dL

A decreased value may indicate:

• Malnutrition
• Decreased albumin levels
• Liver and kidney diseases
• Testosterone administration
• Inflammation
• Cancer
• Non-iron-deficiency anemia
• Infection
• Chronic inflammation

An elevated value may indicate:

• Iron deficiency
• Pregnancy
• Use of contraceptives

It is important to note that total transferrin levels are typically interpreted in conjunction with other iron-related parameters for a comprehensive assessment of iron status. Consulting with a healthcare professional is recommended for proper evaluation and interpretation of the results.

(Neutral fats) They serve as the main source of energy for cells. Part of them is stored in adipose tissues, while the rest is transported in the blood. The concentration of triglycerides depends on diet, and consuming fatty foods can elevate their levels. Their values are influenced by conditions such as diabetes, obesity, kidney failure, alcoholism, and pancreatitis. Triglycerides are not only obtained from fatty foods; excessive consumption of carbohydrates can lead to their synthesis in the body.

Normal value: Below 1.7 mmol/L

Thyroid-stimulating hormone. It is an indicator of the functioning of the pituitary gland and the thyroid gland. Its levels can be high (hypothyroidism) or low (hyperthyroidism).

Under its stimulation, the absorption of iodine in the intestine increases, and it affects the production of hormones (T3, T4) in the thyroid gland.

TSH, T4, T3 normal ranges:

• TSH: 0.300-4.200 mU/L
• FT4: 0-22.0 pmol/L
• FT3: 2.4-6.3 pmol/L

An elevated value may indicate:

• Hypothyroidism
• Acute or chronic thyroiditis
• Surgical removal of the thyroid gland
• Medication treatment

Iron is an important component of hemoglobin, the molecule responsible for carrying oxygen in the blood. It plays a role in oxygen and carbon dioxide transport in the body. Additionally, it is involved in electron transfer, enzyme function, and protein synthesis.

Normal value: 2.5-5 grams/liter

Symptoms of low levels:

• Fatigue
• Dizziness
• Weakness
• Paleness
• Brittle hair
• Muscle weakness
• Cracked nails
• Infertility or miscarriage

Consequences of elevated levels:

• Liver damage
• Cardiac muscle damage

A complete blood count is one of the most common laboratory tests that includes the cellular components of the blood (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets). It is used to assess overall health status and detect certain diseases.

Normal value: 4.2-5.6 T/ (T refers to trillion cells per liter, depending on the specific component being measured)

It is the result of kidney function. The analysis can detect proteins indicating urinary tract infections, diabetes, and inflammation. The urine sediment is examined under a microscope.